Research Perspective Volume 2, Issue 6 pp 361—368

Figure 1. Energy accumulation induces inflammation. Energy accumulation leads to elevation in glucose and fatty acids. These substrates lead to production of diaglycerids (DAG), Ceramide, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activation of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) in cells including macrophages and endothelial cells. All of these events may activate the inflammatory signaling pathways, such as IKK/NF-kB and JNK/AP-1. As a consequence, expression of inflammatory cytokines and adhesion molecules may increase for chronic local inflammation. When inflammatory cytokines are elevated in the circulation, the energy accumulation causes systemic chronic inflammation, which is observed in obesity. This kind of chronic inflammation is limited or prevented by calorie restriction